THE MIXTECS
The Oaxaca region was stage for the development of two of the great cultures of Mesoamerica: the Zapotec and Mixtec cultures. Both peoples were the founders of enduring communities which today are located throughout this beautiful region. Their extraordinary cultural development can be seen in the construction of magnificent monuments and in the wonderful objects made by the skillful hands of the inhabitants. An outstanding example of their architectonic achievements is the city of Mitla whose constructions are evidence of astounding artistic perfection and refinement.
The Mixtec culture, in going beyond its own geographic area, influenced other regions of Mesoamerica in different ways. The books or codices of groups from the Central Highlands are closely related to the ones written by the Mixtec scribes. In order to grasp completely the historical significance of the Mixtec people, it is necessary to understand their participation and influence in Mesoamerican intercultural relations in the largest possible context.
This region has been the object of numerous and extensive archaeological investigations such as those carried out by the renowned scientists Alfonso Caso and Ignacio Bernal. In addition to obtaining information on the extensive history of Oaxaca, they brought to public attention a rich and varied froup of archaeological sites.
Archaeological evidence indicates that Mitla had a large human population. The first traces of monumental construction appeared on the site between 400 and 700 A.D. when it was a tributary settlement, together with others of the powerful Monte Albán. Many years had to pass before Mitla became a major centre, this occurring between 1000 and 1521 A.D. at the peak of its development and prosperity and when it had its largest number of inhabitants. This era corresponds to the post-classic period which saw the construcction of most of the great buildings whose external decorations have made Mitla a very special place among Mesoamerican architectonic expressions.
Today in the ancient city of Mitla, there are five groups of structures built around square patios. Internal and external walls are covered with mosaics of small stones which are perfectly cut and assembled forming long bands of frets, an element which makes these great buildings the most sumptuous residences of the prehispanic world.
Geographic location
Oaxaca is located in the south of the Mexican Republic. It offers great geographical diversity and richness. There are about 10,000 different types of plants and ecosystems in this territory - from wet jungles to tropical rain forests to dry forests, thorny forests and dry scrub. There are also forests of conifers and oaks and incredible forests covered in mist.
There are also lagoons, estuaries, dunes, beaches and steep cliffs. There are numerous mangrove swamps. The coastal vegetation includes palms, savannah and brushwood. The hillsides of the plain and the windward zone at the foot of the mountains towards the Pacific were covered with tropical forests.
The area occupied by the Mixtecs covered a relatively extensive zone which included the western region of the state of Oaxaca, the east of the state of Guerrero and the south of the state of Puebla. The inhabited zone was divided into three distinct areas, clearly highlighting the differences in the topography of the territory: the upper Mixteca, the largest area in the centre of the zone where important dominions such as Tilantongo, Teozacualco, Coixtlahuaca and Tlaxiaco flourished; the lower Mixteca situated to the west and to the north of the latter; and the coastal Mixteca where the ancient centre of Tultepec was built.
In this mountainous zone near the sierra, on gentle slopes where the Mitla river crosses to the south and is joined by a stream flowing north to south through the centre of the city, they built Mitla - the religious and artistic capital of the Mixtecs - 43 kilometres to the east of the city of Oaxaca. Recent research has shown that the extent of the urban centre was one to two square kilometres surrounded by an outer urban area, whereas the rural zone which was intensively farmed, covered more than 20 square kilometres.
Historical and archaeological information
Probably the oldest written information on Mitla is that of Father Burgoa in his “Descriptive Geography” of 1674 in which he describes the geographic relation of Mitla from 1580. The reverend priest described this site as a sacred monument to the dead and as a ceremonial centre; he praised its construction and talked about its functions.
Luis Martín and Pedro de Lagunas, on the orders of the Viceroy Branciforte made the first survey of the site at the end of the XVIII century. Shortly afterwards the Royal Expedition of Antiquities from New Spain made three journeys under the leadership of Guillermo Dupaix, and accompanied by the Mexican sketch artist José Luciano Castañeda.
On the second journey, on 1st August 1806, they left for San Pablo Mitla which they described as a religious capital and a necropolis. They remained there until December of that same year.
Some of the researchers who have carried out explorations and written about Mitla are Alexander von Humboldt, Eduardo Mulhepfordt (1827), Ober (1885), Claude-Joseph-Le and Désiré Charnay (1885), M.F. Alvarez , Viollet-le-Duc, Seler, Saville, Holmes, Ignacio Batres and Alfonso Caso (1935), who over a period of 300 years, all studied the zone. Most of their works refer almost exclusively to the structures, with the exception of the study of the paintings undertaken by Seler, and the investigation of the tombs, burials and ceramics carried out by Alfonso Caso.
Origins
Studies made of the Mixtec language have helped clarify to a certain extent the origins of the people who spoke it as their own language. Today we know that the languages which make up the Mixtec family, that is, Mixtec strictly speaking, Amuzgo and Cuicatec, are to be included within the Olmec branch of the language group known as Olmec-Otomangue.
The relationship of the Mixtec language with those languages known as “historical Olmec” - to distinguish them from the oldest founders of the Mesoamerican mother culture - helps us detect the likely origins and ethnic links of the Mixtec culture. Curiously, Friar Bernardino de Sahagún had already connected the Mixtecs with certain groups the Olmec affiliation, especially with those called the Olmec Huixtotin who, according to what we are told, lived “towards the direction where the sun was born”. In effect, we know that the Huixtotin, that is the Olmec ‘salineros’ or salt harvesters, lived near to the coast of the Golf of Mexico on Veracruz territory. The origins of the Mixtecs in the last instance appears linked with those of other groups who spoke languages belonging to the Olmec-Otomangue group.
Myths and legends
Narrations of various myths on the origins of the Mixtecs, have come down to us today. According to one narrative tradition collected by Francisco de Burgoa, “their origin was attributed to two magnificent trees, proud and boastful of their branches whose leaves were stripped by the wind onto the banks of a river within the withdrawn solitude of Apoala between the mountains. This river had its source in a crevice between the two mountains... and at the foot of one of the mountains it flowed into a chasm or cave... From the veins of this river grew the trees which produced the first chiefs - male and female - who in their turn begat other beings and increased their numbers, populating a vast kingdom...”
The Sun Archer
There were once two giant trees born on the banks of the Achuitl river on Apoala land - two distant trees who came to love one another so much they interlaced their branches and united their roots. From this perfect love were born the first Mixtecs, a man and a woman.
In time, those beings had sons who founded the city of Achiutla. It was in this place of legendary origin that a man called Yacoñooy was born. When he grew up he became a valiant and audacious warrior who one day, armed only with his bow, his arrows and shield, decided to set out and conquer territories. He walked for a long time without a fixed route, for days and days he did not rest for a single moment. But pushed on by a mysterious strength, he continued his long trek until he came to a vast uninhabited land. Only the Sun shone resplendent as lord and master of those places which Yacoñooy coveted for himself because of their freshness and beauty.
As he found no warrior with whom to fight, and understanding that the star of the day was the lord of those lands, he prepared his bow and pointing it to the sky exclaimed: “Hey you! Lord of the land! Measure your strength against mine and draw your bow as one of us must die, for I have decided that only one of us can be the absolute owner of these beautiful lands.”
And drawing his bow, he prepared to fire his arrows, not without first giving time to his enemy to prepare for the fight. He then hurriedly fired the arrows. It was twilight and the sky was turning red.
Yacoñooy, impassive, contemplated the Sun which sunk behind the mountains, and as the clouds at this moment were turning a more intense red, he exclaimed in shouts of triumph: “I’ve beaten you, I’ve beaten you! The strength of my arm has caused your death. Beyond those hills you are wounded for ever, you won’t come back as the master of these lands.”
The valiant Mixtec waited in silence, his heart beating wildly. As time went by and the Lord Sun gave no signs of life, he understood that his enemy had ceased to exist and shouted: “I’ve killed the Sun, my rival, lord of these lands, and by the right of conquest now only I am its master. My arrows pierced his heart. All these lands are mine only and I will defend them with my life.”
Sure of his victory, he lorded his triumph over all that came in his sight. Sometime later, Yacoñooy’s tribal brothers founded Tilantongo on the land that belonged to the Lord Sun, and from that day it became customary for the Mixtecs to paint a scene of the sun vanquished by Yacoñooy on their shields, gourds and bowls in gratitude to the Archer of the Sun, because by this deed he had become a Mixteca hero, an inhabitant of the land of the clouds.
History
Based on historical sources and the pictographic writing of the codices, we know how the inhabitants came to populate the Mixtec region, the conquests they made and the dynasties in power in each of the villages. This is all duly registered with the day and year in which it each event ocurred.
According to those ancient books and transcriptions made during the Spanish colonization, by the end of the Classic period, the Lords of Apoala (born of two trees) ruled by force of arms the other towns of the upper Mixtec (born of the earth). They founded their main seat of power in Tilantongo. At that time, the region was divided into a large number of seigneurial lands, each one comprising a town and its surrounding district.
With the abandonment of Monte Albán, and the reorganization this caused within the western sector of Oaxaca, conditions were right for the descent of the Mixtecs into the Zapotec region. Also after the fall of Monte Albán, the inhabitants of the eastern sector of the valleys developed and enriched the Zapotec tradition, choosing Mitla from the rest of their dominions as their religious and artistic capital.
Meanwhile two marriages between the lords of Zaachila and royalty from the mountains consolidated the presence of Mixtecs in the Etla valley and the plains at the foot of Monte
Albán. However, nothing came of the cultural breach between the two sectors because of pressures felt from the Central Highlands. In this sense, the foundation of a Mexica garrison (Huaxyácac) on the slopes of Monte Albán and the experience of the Mixtecs in 1461 must have encouraged alliances within the valley. Meanwhile the capture of Mitla by the forces of Ahuízotl in 1494 reinforced ties between Mixtecs and Zapotecs.
Facing this union of strength, the Mexicas decided to advance on Cijuiengola, an impregnable force in the Zapotec dominions of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. However, in 1496 after a long siege, the aggressors had to withdraw leaving large tracts of land in the hands of Cocijoeza. Peace was assured by the marriage of Cocijoeza with the daughter of Ahuízotl, but the Zapotec lord scorned his alliance with the Mixtecs.
Offended by the meager retributions for their efforts in the fight against the Mexicas, (they were only granted a small area of land near Tehuantepec, even now known as
Mixtequilla), the Mixtecs invaded Zaachila and appropriated Zapotec lands in the Oaxaca valley. In view of these advances the Zapotec lord had to flee Zaachila and take refuge in Tehuantepec, where his son, Cocijopii, governed. The Spanish arrived while these people were resolving their differences. Aware of their arrival and of the confrontations in the Central Highlands, Cocijoeza did not delay in placing himself at the orders of Cortés, once again provoking the disgust of the Mixtecs. It was only after the Spanish overran the Mixtecs, that the Zapotec chief was able to return to Zaachila and secure his position - the best way, at it would be for the new lords, of ensuring that the new culture would flourish.
Chronology
Only archaeology can give us a perspective on the circumstances surrounding the Mixtec civilization. We know that Montenegro - the first period of the Mixtecs - corresponds approximately, or is prior to, Monte Albán I (between 300 B.C. and 200 A.D.), and that the second period corresponds to Monte Albán II, and is called Tliltepec (between 200 and
400 A.D.). Between 450 and 750 A.D. there is very little information, and from 750 to
1000 A.D. we only know from Doctor Caso’s data that Monte Albán IIIb in the upper Mixteca area was contemporary to the Yucuñadahui culture. Later there is yet again a large gap until about 1350, during the period of Monte Albán IV.
The last two phases of Mixtec ceramics are those of Tilantongo-Coixtlahuaca and Las Pilitas. The former started in approximately 1350 and lasted until close to the conquest, whereas the latter was already influenced by colonial products. Both phases correspond to Monte Albán V (from about 1000 to 1521 A.D.), an era classified by Alfonso Caso as Mixtec, owing to the identification of different materials from the Monte Albán region which arrived at this time in the valley. The Mixtec culture of this late era, principally in the area of Cuilapan-Xoxocotián, and subsequently through its architectonic influences in Yagul and Mitla, reached its maximum splendour a few years before the arrival of the Spanish.
Social organization
Despite several attempts, the Mixtec nation never achieved complete unification. At the head of each village was a hereditary chief who embodied maximum authority. Within the complex social structure that existed in the different seigneurial lands, the power of the upper social classes was obvious as it was in other places of Mesoamerica.
Governors, warrior chiefs, high-ranking priests and those who had been able to excel in an exceptional way belonged to the upper stratum of the nobility. They were responsible for governmental, religious and intellectual tasks. Certain positions in gold and silver-smithing and possibly also in commerce were prerogatives of this social class. The priesthood in the world of the Mixtecs was also hierarchical. There existed high priests who were assisted by those of lower rank. A function of supreme importance was fulfilled by those who knew how to redact books in paintings, read them and interpret their meanings.
The lower ranks were made up of a class very similar to that of the Macehuales from the Central Highlands: they had no role in the public life of the village. This distinction was very marked among the men. The difference between farmers and artisans, on the one hand, and those who lived from the payment of
ibutes, on the other, can be clearly seen. However, there were no apparent differences between the women of both strata as they were solely mothers and housekeepers.
Slaves were on the fringe of these strata although they did not form a social class exploited economically. They possibly came from the same Mixtec society whose members could be made slaves for having committed some crime, or for some other reason.
The most important economic activities were agriculture, and in the case of the coastal Mixtecs, fishing. Jewellers, potters, weavers, painters, merchants and carvers of stone and wood also played an important role.
Production was divided into agriculture and grazing, cottage industries such as textiles, and specialized industries. Given the limited raw materials, the latter two can be subdivided into specialized industries, such as the extraction of salt or the fabrication of fine earthenware, and into professional specializations such as gold and silver smithing.
Religion
Religion was based on the supreme god couple, the origin of all that exists. Testimony to this sacred duality is in found the various Mixtec codices. Similarly, what we know from texts and other representations from the Central Highlands, the supreme god couple had their place of residence at the most elevated celestial level. This did not stop them from interceding in the world of human beings either directly, as in the case of the creation of the first man and woman, or through other deities, frequently envisaged as the sons of the divine pair.
The codices themselves enable us to know the other gods of the Mixtec sacred monument to the dead, owing to the clear stylistic similarity between the representations of deities in the Mixtec manuscripts and in other manuscripts from the Puebla-Tlaxcala region. Amongst the deities, there are those who in the Náhuatl language are known as Tlaloc, god of the rain; Xipe-Tótec, lord of fertility; Mictlantecuhtli, from the region of the dead; and in a very special way, also Quetzalcóatl. Finally, thanks to the geographic accounts of the XVI century, the names of certain deities are known in the Mixtec language. Thus, Hituayuta was the god of generation; Cohuy, the god of corn; Qhuay, god of the hunters; Dzahui, lord of the rain; Taandoco, the Sun and patron of warriors; and Yosotoyua, patron of merchants.
The Mixtecs paid very special attention to the worship of the dead. Testimony to this are the tombs which have been discovered on sites such as Coixtlahuaca, Tlaxiaco and in other regions, particularly in some places which had previously been inhabited by the Zapotecs. Such is the case of the famous Tomb 7 in Monte Albán and of others discovered in
Zaachila.
Dress and adornments
Clothing from the Mixtecs consisted of a mantle knotted on the shoulder and a loincloth, in addition to variations of these two garments. There also existed a curious kind of clothing described as a “soutane” or xicolli. These types of attire, also characteristic of the Uixtotin-Mixtecs from the coast are an indication that the Mixtecs reached a cultural level that allowed them to vary their style of dress, or that they represented different ethnic or clan origins as seen in one or several of these types of clothing.
In addition to differences of either local or ethnic origin in the way of dressing, there were others which served to indicate the social position of the wearer and the duties they performed. Thus, for example, there were special clothes for priests and captains, for chiefs and leaders, in contrast to the acehuales.
The dress for women consisted in a tunic (huipil), and by way of a skirt an enagua, that is a piece of cloth wound round the body and held by a sash. Here, too, there are local differences in nomenclature, but the corresponding descriptions are too summary to establish types. Women must have enjoyed certain distinctive characteristics in dress in accordance with their rank or social position just as men did, but we have no data on this.
Knowledge
The Mixtecs posessed superior knowledge and their knowledge of astronomy, history, geography and empirical medicine was outstanding. As an inherent characteristic of the social upbringing of the Mixtecs, each one of the branches of science was perpetuated within a defined group who inherited that knowledge, passing it on from father to son.
Numeration was based on dots and lines, as was that of the Mayas and Zapotecs. Writing and the calendar appear to be the same as in the Central Highlands.
The mythical importance of the ball-game for the Mixtecs is seen in the Columbus codex. Here the chronology of events as well as the alliances established through this game are depicted.
Ceramics
The oldest examples so far discovered in the Mixtec area are closely related from the pottery of the Classic period of Teotihuacan, and of Monte Albán in Zapotec territory. A significant change occurs from the time when contacts were intensified with immigrants from Tula and with those who had established themselves in the Cholula area. A new style known as
polychrome ceramics of the Mixtec-Puebla type appears, the examples of this being among the most beautiful of prehispanic pottery in Mesoamerica. There were three-legged vessels, tumblers with handles for pouring,
goblets with ring-shaped bases, types of pitchers with round bodies and tall necks with handles, three-legged plates whose feet were finished with animal heads, as well as zoomorphic vessels and on occasions anthropomorphic vessels. The colours used in their decoration were red, black, orange, grey and white. Based on a combination of these colours and with the firm lines of a careful design, the outstanding examples of this kind of pottery are representations of deities, symbols and hieroglyphics, important people,
skulls, animals, frets, feathers, flowers, ceremonial objects and, in short a multitude of motifs which bring to mind the characteristic representations and paintings of the Mixtec
codices. Many pieces of this polychrome pottery could be considered as bearers in the plastic arts of hieroglyphics and symbolic details pertaining to a codex in miniature. The refinement of these finely polished creations, finished with a brilliant polychrome, testifies to the Mixtecs’ sense of beauty.
Gold and silver-smithing
Techniques of gold and silver-smithing, introduced to Mesoamerica towards the beginning of the post-classic period via a slow process of diffusion originating in South America, were admirably assimilated and even enhanced by the Mixtec artisans. It is proven that in this field, they stood out from all other gold and silversmiths from the other regions of Mesoamerica.
They used techniques such as “cire perdue” (lost wax), hammering, filigree work, the use of copper alloys, and the soldering of precious metals, gold and silver. Their creations in gold and silver included a wide range of jewels: necklaces, pectorals, rings, ear and nose rings, at times with incrustations of turquoise mosaics, and other different works such as copper axes of all sizes.
The art of carving
The Mixtecs were masters in carving materials such as bone, wood, jade, marine shell, obsidian and rock crystal. Their mastery of this art can be seen in the 30 jaguar bones from Tomb 7 in Monte Albán. On these bones are incrustations of turquoise, and scenes very similar to those represented in the codices. With regards the other materials, certain objects have been found, such as a rock crystal goblet also from Tomb 7 in Monte Albán, and others from various sites in obsidian, marine shell, jade and different kinds of stone.
Sculptures and painting
Looking at the codices from an aesthetic point of view, the mastery in the composition of some extraordinaily dynamic scenes can be observed. They are depicted on a background of vivid colours which contrast and highlight the different figures and glyphs: fishes, serpents, shell fish and other animals. In other scenes, the artist has captured arrowed tigers or numerous insects and birds, such as the pair of owls portrayed in the Bodley codex.
Something similar could be said about other scenes in which we see different participatory stances of governors, warriors and priests. This is certainly true in the case of the
Vindobonensis and Nuttall codices which with reason, are considered from an aesthetic point of view to be extraordinary examples of the art of book paintings in Mesoamerica.
Few stone sculptures have been found, but some researchers claim that the holes observed in the facades of certain rooms were used for placing heads of animals made of stone.
At the end of the Classic period, mural paintings on lintels of the sumptuous edifices of Mitla stand out. The representations are very similar to those of the Mixtec codices and to those which appear on many vessels of this same region. Between two bands decorated with chalchihuites (green-coloured stones), very stylized buildings and temples can be seen and between them various gods at that time closely related to the mythology of central Mexico: Tezcatlipoca, Tláloc and Quetzalcóatl in the form of Ehécatl; and moreover, other figures which appear to be kneeling and carrying large ornamental motifs on their backs such as numbers and the signs of the year.
Architecture and town planning
The city of Mitla dates from the Monte Albán I era - about 400-700 A.D. Its ruins form five groups of main structures: the Catholic Establishments or the Parish, the Columns, and Adobe Constructions, the Stream and the structures to the south. It is almost certain that the areas between them were covered by houses that have disappeared or whose remains are hidden beneath the modern buildings. It is therefore difficult to visualize the lay-out of ancient Mitla and we have to confine our observations to these isolated groups.
The construction of these complexes always appears to be the same. They started with a nucleus of rough stone and mud covered with stucco or well cut stones. Despite the fact that these were not the same size, they were perfectly assembled and stuck one against the other with a little lime. In some areas, this covering of stone is only on the surface, but in others, the stones penetrate deeply into the rough nucleus, giving greater stability to the structures with the result that several of them still have their walls and decorations today.
The decoration is basically made up mosaics with small stones perfectly cut so as to fit into one another, creating geometric designs or stylizations inspired by the serpent. However, in some cases the frets were not placed together with this sophisticated technique, but were rather carved into a single block of stone to form a false mosaic.
The roofs were made of beams supported by the lateral walls, on top of which were thin pieces of wood and upon these again, others in the direction of the beams. Over everything,they put a thick flat surface with the necessary incline to allow the rain water to run off. In the wider rooms, a line of monolithic columns ran down the centre to support the roof. The columns did not have a base or a capital, but their diameter diminished slightly towards the top.
The lintels are generally enormous monolithic rectangles, sometimes decorated with false mosaics similar to the ones used in tombs. We know of three of these in Mitla itself and some more in the surrounding area. The edifices have a very spacious cruciform floor plan and are finished off remarkably with stone mosaics or blocks of finely carved stone.
There are two principal kinds of arrangement among the five groups of structures.
The first kind comprises the Parish, the Columns and the Stream. Each structure is made up of two quadrangles, formed by an almost square patio bordered by platforms on which stand on three of the sides structures with rectangular floor plans. A large entrance is located on the fourth side. The building in front of this entrance is the most important edifice and is extended at the rear end by four passages which border a patio smaller than the main one. This edifice is on the same platform and on the same level as the main building. It is accessed via a narrow passage way. The other quadrangles, however, constructed to the south or to the south-west of the latter, are completely separate with individual platforms formed by three structures and a single entrance on the side which only has platforms.
The second kind comprises a single quadranagle bordered by echeloned bases the lowest one being the largest. The group of Adobe Constructions and the group of structures to the south belong to this type of arrangement.
Columns group
Crossing the river northwards and heading east of the stream which flows down from the nearby hills, you come to the Columns Group which characterizes perfectly the kind of
constructions in Mitla. The group is made up of two quadrangles with rectangular patios, platforms on all four sides and structures with rectangular floor plans. Alongside of the Patio of the Frets to the north side is what is called the Main Building.
Main building
When the Main Building was being restored, the shape of the base which supports the terrace was not correctly determined and now appears as a vertical wall. It was also discovered that its decoration should have similar to that of the structures on the upper part of the platform, which consists of an incline between two bands of stone on which was built a sloping base, a panelled vertical rise and a cornice, with very similar characteristics to the buildings of Monte Albán.
Stream group
This group is similary arranged to the Columns Group. The most northern building extends to the rear by means of a square patio, surrounded by four corridors, and a base at the same level as the rooms. The quadrangle is entered from the south side. The buildings on top of the platform are narrow which meant there was no need for intermediate supports to support the roof. During the last explorations, structures from an even earlier time were discovered.
Group of Catholic establishments of the Parish
This group also comprises of two quadrangles: the one to the north with a rear patio, surrounded by four corridors and connected with the room adjacent to the quadrangle by a narrow and dark passage, as in the Stream and Columns groups. The patios of this group are smaller than those of the Columns group. On the south side, the North Building was constructed on another quadrangle, and on its patio a Catholic church and its subsidiary buildings were later erected, some of the later being housed in the ancient structure.
The decoration is very similar to the Columns and Stream groups in the mouldings of the bases and the use of decorative frets. In all the Mitla structures, there were parts decorated with paintings which now have almost disappeared. But in this group, especially on the patio of the structure backing on to the North Quadrangle, the projecting moulding over the lintels has protected and partially preserved them. These paintings filled long and narrow horizontal spaces and were executed on very finely smoothed and well polished stucco. The background is generally a dark red and the figures are white yet slightly greyed because of the surface finish. The rest of the painting is coloured in different tones of mixed red and white. It is precise and painted with a steady hand. Exceptionally, other colours are found on small fragments of paintings in some buildings, but it can be said that almost all we know of painting is in white and various tones of red.
Group of the adobe constructions and structures to the south
The Adobe group is furthest to the west. It has not been excavated, but presents a characteristic which is only shared with the structures to the south. In both groups, a square patio is bordered on three sides by rooms and on the eastern side by a pyramid on the top of which there must have been a temple. Another similar pyramid one is on the north side of the South group. These are the only two religious structures in all the five groups. In the centre of the patio, and perhaps also on the patio of the Adobe Constructions, was an altar.
Peculiarity of Mitla
With regard to all the sumptuous buildings in Mitla, it is interesting to observe the tremendous effort they represented and their designated function. They represent labour on a titanic scale. In just one of the complexes more than 100,000 small stones have been calculated, all of which were carved to form mosaics. This points to the existence of a central political power of considerable size, capable of enlisting the necessary human labour force and of keeping them working.
Changes that occurred in Mitla which, for many centuries, had only been one more ceremonial centre in the valley, were a result of a cult to the gods becoming a cult to men. The most important constructions were no longer temples but palaces or sumptuous buildings constructed as glorification of temporal power, a human power which did not trust only in divine help, but also constructed forts as a refuge in case of danger. We do not see a total change, but one in which men acquire importance, given the large part of the ceremonial centre which was specifically designed as living quarters for the chiefs or chief. This did not signify the end of temples or worship of the gods, but showed that they no longer were given the absolute precedence that they had enjoyed before.
Conquest of the Mixtecs
The Spanish conquest was bloody in the Mixtec region, possibly for two reasons. The first was the Mixtecs’ skill as gold and silversmiths which increased the greed of the conquerors. Secondly, there were differences which existed between the Mixtecs and the Zapotecs. The latter, who aligned themselves the Spanish, were instrumental in the violent subjection of the Mixtecs to ensure the integration of the colony.
