THE ZAPOTECS
The Zapotec culture - even though possessing its own architectonic characteristics and styles - followed the Mesoamerican pattern of development and shared its historic future in particular with the inhabitants of the Central Higlands, with whom they were in constant contact.
In the post-classic period, there appeared a characteristic cultural feature - gold and silver-smithing. Extraordinary treasures of jewels of gold, silver, pearls, rock crystal, jade,
and ambar, and of turquoise mosaics, together with beautiful ceramics have been found in the burial offerings, treasures which show the skill of the indigenous gold and silversmiths and
lapidaries who had no equal in any other area of Mesoamerica.
The Zapotecs settled in the central valleys of Oaxaca, and afterwards extended their territories to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where they developed one of the most important classical cultures of indigenous Mexico.
At different times and under varying circumstances, the Zapotecs lived surrounded by other settlements inhabited by the Mixtecs,
Zoques, Mixes, Huves, Mazatecs and Cuicatecs. The Zapotecs frequently attacked these peoples or defended themselves against them. They also maintained cultural and commercial relations with these settlements.
Historical and archaeological information
The existence of Monte Albán was already known at the end of the XIX century. In 1902 Leopoldo Batres excavated the site and sent 14 large sculptured stones to the city of Mexico for his exhibition.
The exploration was planned in 1919, but the great Monte Albán archaeological project, led by Alfonso Caso, was begun in 1931, continuing for 18 seasons until 1949, with another in 1958. Caso and his collaborators, Jorge Acosta, Ignacio Bernal and others explored the zone, consolidated information, documented architecture, ceramics, urns and burial customs, and also established a chronological sequence for the site.
Investigations carried out and led by Marcus Winter for the special project from 1992-1994, confirmed and built on information obtained years before and included explorations of monumental and residential architecture as well as maps and preservation works. Research work still continues today.
Chronology
The various forms of construction and human occupation of archaeological areas, as seen in mural paintings and ceramics studied stratographically and compared with those of other areas, have given us to understand that the site was occupied between the VII and IV centuries B.C., at which time the topography of the hillsides changed. They built terraces and support walls on the slopes and small summits, slowly building up the foundations the city. Archaeological discoveries in Monte Albán have enabled five major phases which marked its development over 15 centuries to be established.
During the first phase known as Monte Albán I (500 to 200 B.C.), the Zapotec city began to locate half of the valley’s population in dwellings on the terraces of the hillsides. There were three densely populated areas - to the east, west and to the south of the main plaza - which suggests that there were three districts perhaps related to the three areas in the valley. They built underground tombs on the hillsides; they erected the first constructions; they planned the Great Plaza, and on its western side built the Temple of the Dancers. The architectonic style and iconography of this temple have enabled its relationship with Olmec culture from La Venta to be determined.
Ceramics were very elaborate and not at all primitive, which indicates that the first inhabitants were highly developed. In this era, the classical Zapotec urns had not yet appeared although there was a similarity with Maya (pre-Maya) and Olmec ceramics.
The second phase of development of this culture and known as Monte Albán II (200 B.C. to 100 A.D.) is characterized by the singularity of its tombs and its ceramics. Manufacturing techniques and beautiful shapes appear to be related to the pre-classic Maya culture of Tikal in El Petén (Guatemala). This was the only phase in which Monte Albán undertook campaigns outside the valley, as shown by the military post near Cuicatlán.
The most important and representative burial find of this phase is a face made out of 25 pieces of dark jade mounted on wood, with the eyes and teeth of white shell: this face is known as the Mask of the Bat God. The urbanization of the Great Plaza is attributed to this stage; as are the constructions known as the Central Complex (structures G, H, and J,
the latter being built on top of several previous constructions); the great defense walls of the site which extended to the north, north-east and west of Monte Albán (in the northern sector the wall crossed a gorge and formed a large dam with a surface area of 2.25 hectares); and Stela 18 which has been preserved en situ.
The stage known as Monte Albán III is the phase of greatest population and architectonic construction of the Zapotec capital and is considered to be an era of transition subsequently divided into A and B.
Monte Albán IIIA (100-400 A.D.) represents a phase of close contact with the great city of Teotihuacan, and is chronologically parallel to the old Maya empire. During the first part of this stage, economic and political development was at its highest and the Zapotec culture stood out in its own right.
Typical Zapotec architectonic characteristics made their appearance: sumptuous tombs; large clay sculptures called funeral urns with calendar images; and in particular double scapula paneling.During the period known as Monte Albán IIIB (400 to 600 A.D.) the regional system was centralized and focused directly on Monte Albán. The fundamental difference between this stage and the previous one was the disappearance of Teotihuacan characteristics. Monte Albán isolated itself from the outside, and the Mixtecs separated themselves from the traditions of the Oaxaca valley. It was the time when Monte Albán fell into decline, and corresponds to the Toltec-Chichimec era of massive invasions and violent wars. It is possible that Mixtec incursions into Monte Albán occurred at this time.
The last phase known as Monte Albán IV (600 to 900 A.D.) represents the time of decline for the great Zapotec centre. The central plaza was abandoned and habitation (4,000 people only) was confined to the internal sector of the wall. This was the era of Mixtec occupation, this group settling in different parts of the Oaxaca valley and giving rise to a new style of architecture whose best examples are the sumptuous buildings of Mitla, polychrome ceramics and other objects with typical Mixtec charactistics.
Origins
What we know about the inhabitants of Oaxaca comes from the few codices which survived the destruction by the Spanish, and from interpretrations of sculptured glyphs on constructions and sculptures. According to field research carried out in the archaeological areas, the inhabitants were a splinter group from the Paleolmec nucleus who emmigrated from the Pánuco area towards the east. They entered present-day Oaxaca via Soconusco, spreading throughout the valley and establishing their capital on the Cerro del Tigre (Hill of the Tiger), today known as Monte Albán. This ethnic group is known as the
potecs.
Legends and Traditions
According to traditions, the Zapotecs believed themselves to be natives of the region. They claimed they were descendents of wild animals, and contended that their ancestors had come out of caves and had been born of rocks. The caves probably symbolized the maternal womb where life originated, not only that of their ancestors, but also their own lives.
Social organization
Social organization during the first Zapotec stage was theocratic. Later the chief replaced the priest and became the supreme head. There were some ancilliary chiefs who governed the people and lesser authorities who resolved disputes between neighbours.
The priests, chiefs and nobles formed the highest social class and lived inside the city. In the middle were merchants who constituted a special class with certain privileges, whereas artisans (potters, sculptors, painters, etc) and peasants, hunters and fishermen made up the lower class. They lived on the hillsides and their dwellings, made of perishable materials, were located wherever the abrupt topography permitted.
The Zapotecs were peaceful, but turned to war as a method of defence against the Mixtecs and the Mexicas, and on occasions to vanquish the Chontals and Mixes. They were farmers, huntsmen, fishermen and foragers, and in this way obtained the necessary produce for their own sustenance and for trade.
They prepared the soil for sowing by clearing or felling trees and they sowed seeds using a kind of hoe. In time they used irrigation canals and constructed barns to store their produce. They sowed corn, beans, squash and chile. They used nets and fishhooks made of bone for fishing, and they hunted deer, wild boar and rabbits.
For everyday use they had self-made instruments such as knives, razors, axes and chisels made of stone; awls and needles made from bone; bows and dart throwers made of wood. For domestic purposes they used grinding stones and pestles as well as other clay objects.
Religion
As in all agricultural communities tied to nature, their daily lives were tied to and were dictated by religion. Their beliefs were based on one creator-god with multiple manifestations: Cozobi, corn; Cocijo, rain; Copijza, the Sun; and Bezelao, fertility.
Thirty-nine gods have been counted in the Zapotec sacred monument to the dead. Sources of the XVI century which tell us about their religion, reveal some important elements related to the forces of nature. Perhaps the most important supernatural phenomenon for the Zapotecs was lightning. The flash of lightning itself was called Cocijo, and the thunder xvo Cocijo “the movement of the lightning”. This idea gave rise to the notion of Cocijo as a god of rain, similar to Tlaloc.
As other cultures of Mesoamerica, they worshipped the dead who went to the underworld, that is, beneath the earth’s surface. From the beginning of the Zapotec culture until approximately the year zero of the Christian era, important people were buried in caves as it was believed that their ancestors had sprung from caves, and that the dead had to return to the underworld (darkness) in the same way. In later eras, bodies were buried according to their rank, either in tombs or simply in the earth, accompanied by offerings made up of jewels, clothing and some utensils for personal use, as well as food and drink. Companions or clay urns were placed at the entrance to the tombs. The practice of ancestor worship is still current today.
Religious festivals and important ceremonies were celebrated on fixed dates and in the open air accompanied by dancing, singing, music, offerings of copal (a transparent resin), birds and flowers. They played ritual games such as the human flyers, the ball-game and patolli. On certain occasions they sacrificed prisoners and animals. They also practiced self-sacrifices by making the tongue or ears bleed with prongs or darts and offering them to the gods.
Dress and adornments
Clothing consisted of loincloths with a short skirt called a máxtlatl, cotton cloaks, short
capes and thonged sandals made of deerskin. Men wore masks and false beards. Women wore cotton skirts held up with bands or belts, short capes, and items of clothing woven in various colours and artistic designs.
As an element of beauty and recognition of rank, they filed their teeth and encrusted them with pyrite or turquoise. Both men and women tattooed their faces and bodies and wore bone or shell necklaces, earrings, arm bands and bracelets. These customs as well as the flattened forehead and the aquiline nose, were distinctive signs of the important people as seen in the clay figures.
Knowledge
The Zapotecs studied numbering, writing, and astronomy, which linked together enabled them to produce the calendar, according to which they were able to register historic, geographic and religious dates. As all Mesoamerican cultures, the Zapotecs had a mystic calendar of 260 days which they called piye. This was made up of four periods of 65 days (cocijo), which was again subdivided into five periods of 13 days (cosii). The priests used this calendar to interpret omens and predict the fortunes of men. They had another solar calendar of 365 days, divided into 18 months of 20 days plus 5 supplementary days, which was used to determine the sowing and harvesting seasons as well as other civil and religious activities.
Their writing and numerical systems were similar to those of the Mayas, their writing being ideographic and partly phonetic and their numbers being represented by dots and lines. They symbolized days and months of the year, towns and exploits with glyphs engraved or painted on stelae, in the codices and in tombs.
Ceramics
Ceramics in the Monte Albán archaeological area, such as clay objects used in daily life and ceremonies, have confirmed a permanent human presence on this site. Over the long period that Monte Albán was inhabited, differences in techniques, shapes and colours confirm the existence of various eras.
The oldest ceramics found in the area were very elaborate, and were magnificently finished with a high polish, complete with decoration made with fine incisions. The colours grey, cream over brown and yellow predominated. The cream-coloured pottery was given a white finish.
In order to give form to the vessels with a ring base, some with pourers, they used skillfully worked clay. They made vessels in the form of men, birds, ducks and shells. Cylindrical
receptacles similar to incense burners and braziers require a special mention. They were made of reddish clay and covered with a cream colour and their engraved glyphs bore traces of Olmec style faces and their thick lips denoted movement.
In the following stage, ceramics are well-known for their innovations bearing a marked influence from pre-Maya culture. There were vessels with four supports (tetrapods), and receptacles with lids which featured in the main the colours cream and brown over grey. They used a covering of dark brown and black, al fresco painting, and the colour red over orange. Incised decoration was replaced by scraping. In some cases, a thin layer of stucco to which they had added colour was applied, and grey was used for pouring vessels. In this era, the manufacture of small figures and clay sculptures, as well as that of the large polychrome urns, were also characteristic. This era was perhaps contemporaneous with of the Chicanel ceramics of Uaxactún.
During the era considered to be that of maximum splendour appear the classic Zapotec
urns, almost all the pre-Maya elements having disappeared. Grey-coloured clay predominates, and engraved decorations are abundant. There are also tumblers, pots with pourers, and cups with Teotihuacan era III features. Serpents and other animals, mainly jaguars and bats, are commonly found by way of decorations on
funeral urns.
Human figures wore rich finery, helmets, feather headdresses, earrings and necklaces.
During the second phase of this stage, they continued to use grey-coloured clay, classic in their pottery, and the use of sandy brown clay increased. They no longer used engravings as decoration, replacing them with stucco. The typical Teotihuacan features disappeared (three-legged vessels, bowls) and vessels with bases in the form of claws again became characteristic of this era. The large urns, typical of Zapotec ceramics, were more elaborate and pedestals were added to them. At the end of this era, the Zapotecs left the mountain (Monte Albán) and went to the valley.
During the last period of Monte Albán they continued to use the characteristic brown and grey colours for their vessels which were similar to those of previous era, although less refined. The urns were better made and more
elaborate. Mixtec ocupation of the area is also reflected in the ceramics. They were polychrome, predominanly grey coloured with engravings in the form of eagles, serpents, and symbols similar to those in the codices. The Toltec influence can also be seen in this era, until the arrival of the Spanish.
Funeral art and paintings
Intimately connected with construction, pottery and the art of working stone is the funeral aspect, at the one time human, complex and spectacular.
Funeral constructions and tombs have been found on mountain slopes, in the earth, on upper platforms of buildings throughout the different eras of Monte Albán. Red painted skeletons were found in Zapotec tombs, indicating they practised secondary burials, that is, after having left the body to decay they later buried the bones a second time and sealed the tomb for good.
In the north, the oldest tombs are characterized by vertical walls, rectangular floors, roofs of flat stone slabs and by their small size. Tombs 33 and 43 are pertinent examples.In the next phase, tombs were larger, they were rectangular or square, and had a side entrance. The facades were made of stone and mortar. The roofs were flat and made of stone slabs which rested on the interior walls. Steps descend to a closed space divided into two sections: the first section was the vestibule and the second section the main room. The latter has two niches on each side and another one facing the entrance. Pertinent examples are tombs 4, 77 and 118.
Subsequently, the same lay-out as in the previous period was still used. Constructions, however were larger and in the shape of a cross, as is tomb number 3. The facades began to be decorated as can be observed in tombs 104 and 105, in which the magnificent murals are preserved. In the last of these tombs Teotihuacan influence is evident.
Tomb number 7 is perhaps the most representative of Monte Albán because of its state of preservation and the objects found there. Located on the north-east slope of the hill, it is considered to be of Zapotec construction. The construction is entered by way of three steps leading to a floor of stucco, where fragments of this Zapoteco tomb were found. Steep stairs lead you down to a closed space divided by two pillars: the first part is the antechamber whose flat roof is made of large stone slabs; the next space is the tomb itself, with a niche at the end where human remains were found and an offering of more than 300 objects of different materials such as rock crystal, gold, copper, silver, turquoise, bone, sea snail, jade, obsidian, tecalli (alabaster), marine shell and pearls.
In this Zapotec tomb the Mixtec custom of profanity was evident given the objects found:
small tumblers, fragments of clay urns, and precious objects in the Mixtec style. Exploration of the tomb shows the refined nature of burial practices of which both the Zapotecs and Mixtecs made an art.
In the last phase, they continued to build large tombs. Flat roofs were once again used and in some cases niches were placed above the entrance. Examples are tombs 59 and 93.
Gold and silver-smithing
It is thought that the splendid gold and silver-smithing was carried out using two techniques: hot or cold hammering of the metal and the method of cire perdue (lost wax). The latter was effected by making a clay mold which was covered with a thin coat of wax of the desired thickness, which in its turn was protected with another paste leaving holes for the wax to run out when it became hot. At that moment, the melted metal was emptied into the mould. When cool, the mould was broken, and the finishing touches given to the object. Among the gold objects found in tomb number 7 is an outstanding pectoral which perhaps represents the synchronization between the Mixtec and Zapotec calendars, and a pendant with calendar and astronomical inscriptions.
Architecture and sculpture
Explorations have shown that Monte Albán was not constructed for purposes of war, but rather, it would appear, as a great ceremonial centre and in the last era, as a Mixtec burial ground.
On the slopes of the hill were dwellings made of perishable materials, and located wherever the abrupt topography permitted.
Great Plaza
Two platforms to the north and to the south, three constructions to the west, and various others to the east delimit the Great Plaza. In the middle of the Plaza four more constructions were built in line with an axis bearing to the north/south cardinal points. The zone which separates the Great Plaza from a square area where columns stand, is called the Sunken
Patio, due to the fact that it is three metres below the base level of the columns and of the
platform.
Temple of the Dancers
On the western side, there is what is known as the Temple of the Dancers. Its reliefs display figures bearing a similarity to Olmec sculpture, and because of this, it is thought that the construction was erected by the Olmecs, or at least by people from the coast heavily influenced by them. On top of the first construction where the human figures are to be found, there is another construction, rectangular in form, and made up of two inclined (talud) platforms and a stairway to the east. On the upper platform there are three constructions, one at each end (both of similar architecture) and the other with a square base in the centre, the entrance to the latter framed by pilasters facing the stairway.
Towards the north of the Temple of the Dancers is a construction identified as System IV, and towards the south a construction called System M. Both are very similar and face the Great Plaza.
Systems IV and M
Systems IV and M are constructions of similar shape and size, built on rectangular platforms. Some of their bases are decorated with panels in the style typical of Monte Albán.
Ball-game court
To the north of these constructions is the Ball-game court in classic Zapotec style. It is in the shape of a “I” and lies below the level of the described constructions. Various superpositions confirm its actual appearance: the narrow steps were covered with a thick layer of stucco and it is thought that spectators sat there to witness the game (this part is similar to the Ball-game court in Dainzú, also in the state of Oaxaca).
There has been speculation as to the function of two rectangular niches in the north-east and south-west corners of the court. It is believed that they were the gods of the court, or that they hung there the image of a god or even wagers. In the centre of the court, there is a circular stone which was possibly used to bounce the ball off at the beginning of thegame. If a line were drawn joining the two niches, it would pass through the circular stone - this demonstrates the symmetry of the structure. On the western stairway there were two monoliths and a stone bearing inscriptions.
To the north is a stairway leading to a ground level where there are the remains of a construction, and on the south side this construction is joined to the remains of another one. In the south-east corner a drain was found which took rainwater to one side of the gorge. To date, the classical rings used by the Toltecs and other cultures in their ball-games have not been found.
The Palace
Structure S, known as the Palace, with a large stairway and wide stone runs, is the best preserved construction on the eastern side. Above, walls on all four sides can be seen and in the centre a patio where a tomb in the form of a cross was found.
Structures G, H, I and J
At the centre of the Great Plaza and aligned in a similar way to the constructions on the eastern side, stand the interconnected architectonic works known as the Central Complex:
Structures G, H and I to the south, and a fourth isolated construction - Structure J. The first three constructions give the impression of having only a rectangular base. From Structure G, one of the most astounding pieces of the art of stone carving from Monte Albán was recovered - the Bat God.
Structure J is considered by some researchers to have been used for astronomical purposes. It has 40 commemorative stones, and some sites identified on them correspond to centres located outside the valley of Oaxaca. These stones were found on the ground, in the course of restoration work, and were later encrusted onto different surfaces of the construction.
Human figures are represented on some of them and on others plants, animals, banners and arms, which suggest the names of places written phonetically.
South Platform
Behind Structure J is the so called South Platform, a monumental pyramid partially explored and restored, with a possibly rectangular base built upon a natural elevation. Behind the platform are remains of a group of constructions called 7 Deer, because of a sculptured glyph on a lintel. The lay-out of the construction is similar to that other of constructions in Monte Alban. Worthy of note are the carved stones on which are sculptured glyphs whose heads, it is thought, are inverted. Seen this way the general theme could be interpreted as a conquest.
North Platform
To the north, and 12 metres above the level of the Great Plaza, is the North Platform
Decline and fall
Probably the primary cause although not the only one of the fall of Monte Albán, was the same as that of Teotihuacan: its isolation, and in a certain sense, its arrogance. Monte Albán had lived for 1,500 years in continuous development and the time came when it lost is balance and was unable to set itself aright. Monte Alban’s fall must have been the result of an unresolvable crisis. Although it is impossible to confirm, it would appear that in latter times there existed some discontent, with consequent rebellions.
The fact is that towards 750 A.D. the city was abandoned. In Monte Albán there are no traces of a violent conquest, a natural catastrophy or of fire which, as in Teotihuacan, had raised it to the ground in a few days. It was a matter of a slow destruction. By 800 A.D. there were no organized inhabitants, except in a very few areas. The abandonment of Monte Albán provoked a series of repercussions within the valley itself, giving rise to the establishment of a great many sites which grew and, in time, acquired importance.
SOURCE : Adapted from "MESOAMERICA : The Land Where the Stones Speak", CONACULTA. CD by Standard, S.A. de C.V. 1997
Other References
- Reconstructing Zapotec Polical Organization
- Zapotec Civilization
- Zapotec Religion
